PPCP contamination in surface water: Emerging threats to human health and ecosystem stability

Adams C, Asce M, Wang Y, Loftin K, Meyer M. 2002. Removal of antibiotics from surface and distilled water in conventional water treatment processes. J. Environ. Eng. 128(3), 253–260.

Aker AM, Ferguson KK, Rosario ZY, Mukherjee B, Alshawabkeh AN, Calafat AM, Cordero JF, Meeker JD. 2019b. A repeated measures study of phenol, paraben and Triclocarban urinary biomarkers and circulating maternal hormones during gestation in the Puerto Rico PROTECT cohort. Environ Health 18, 28.

Aker AM, Ferguson KK, Rosario ZY, Mukherjee B, Alshawabkeh AN, Cordero JF, Meeker JD. 2019a. The associations between prenatal exposure to triclocarban, phenols and parabens with gestational age and birth weight in northern Puerto Rico. Environ. Res. 169, 41-51.

Akiba M, Senba H, Otagiri H, Prabhasankar V, Taniyasu S, Yamashita N, Lee K, Yamamoto T, Tsutsui T, Ian Joshua D, Balakrishna K, Bairy I, Iwata T, Kusumoto M, Kannan K, Guruge K. 2015. Impact of wastewater from different sources on the prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli in sewage treatment plants in South India. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 115, 203–208.

Alfhili MA, Weidner DA, Lee MH. 2019. Disruption of erythrocyte membrane asymmetry by triclosan is preceded by calcium dysregulation and p38 MAPK and RIP1 stimulation. Chemosphere 229, 103-11.

Allan BB, Brant R, Seidel JE, Jarrell JF. 1997. Declining sex ratios in Canada. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 156(1), 37–41.

Archana G, Dhodapakar R, Kumar A. 2016. Offline solid-phase extraction for preconcentration of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in environmental water and their simultaneous determination using the reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography method. Environ. Monit. Assess. 188, 512–522.

Barber LB, Buxton HT. 2002. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999-2000: A national reconnaissance. Environmental Science & Technology 36(6), 1202-1211.

Beek T, Weber FA, Bergmann A, Hickmann S, Ebert I, Hein A, Küster A. 2015. Pharmaceuticals in the environment—global occurrences and perspectives. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 35(4), 823–835.

Berger K, Eskenazi B, Balmes J, Kogut K, Holland N, Calafat AM, Harley KG. 2019b. Prenatal high molecular weight phthalates and bisphenol A and childhood respiratory and allergic outcomes. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 30, 36-46.

Berger K, Gunier RB, Chevrier J, Calafat AM, Ye X, Eskenazi B, Harley KG. 2018a. Associations of maternal exposure to triclosan, parabens, and other phenols with prenatal maternal and neonatal thyroid hormone levels. Environ. Res. 165, 379-86.

BIO Intelligence Service. 2013. Study on the environmental risks of medicinal products, final report prepared for Executive Agency for Health and Consumers, BIO Intelligence Service, Paris. https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/files/environment/study_environment.pdf

Birklett JW. 2003. Scope of the problem. In: Endocrine Disruptors in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment Processes. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.

Birnbaum LS. 1994. Endocrine effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, dioxins and other xenobiotics: implications for policy and future research. Environ. Health Perspect. 102(8), 676–679.

Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Weschler CJ, Sigsgaard T, Lundgren B, Hasselgren M, Hägerhed-Engman L. 2004. The association between asthma and allergic symptoms in children and phthalates in house dust: a nested case-control study. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 1393-7.

Boxall ABA, Rudd MA, Brooks BW, Caldwell DJ, Choi K, Hickmann S, Innes E, Ostapyk K, Staveley JP, Verslycke T, Ankley GT, Beazley KF, Belanger SE, Berninger JP, Carriquiriborde P, Coors A, DeLeo PC, Dyer SD, Ericson JF, Van Der Kraak G. 2012. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: what are the big questions? Environmental Health Perspectives 120(9), 1221–1229.

Brausch JM, Rand GM. 2011. A review of personal care products in the aquatic environment: environmental concentrations and toxicity. Chemosphere 82, 1518–1532.

Browne MA, Galloway T, Thompson R. 2009. Microplastics- an emerging contaminant of potential concern. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 3, 559–561.

Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL. 2008. Exposure of the U.S. population to bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-octylphenol: 2003-2004. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 39-44.

Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL. 2008. Urinary concentrations of triclosan in the U.S. population: 2003–2004. Environmental Health Perspectives 116(3), 303–307.

Campo J, Masiá A, Picó Y, Farré M, Barceló D. 2014. Distribution and fate of perfluoroalkyl substances in Mediterranean Spanish sewage treatment plants. Sci. Total Environ. 472, 912–922.

Carballa M, Omil F, Lema JM, Llompart M, García-Jares C, Rodríguez I, Gómez M, Ternes T. 2004. Behavior of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and hormones in a sewage treatment plant. Water Res. 38, 2918–2926.

Celić M, Škrbić BD, Insa S, Živančev J, Gros M, Petrović M. 2020. Occurrence and assessment of environmental risks of endocrine-disrupting compounds in drinking, surface, and wastewaters in Serbia. Environ. Pollut. 262, 114344.

Chakraborty P, Mukhopadhyay M, Sampath S, Ramaswamy BR, Katsoyiannis A, Cincinelli A, Snow D. 2019. Organic micropollutants in the surface riverine sediment along the lower stretch of the transboundary river Ganga: occurrences, sources, and ecological risk assessment. Environ. Pollut. 249, 1071-80.

Cizmas L, Sharma VK, Gray CM, McDonald TJ. 2015. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in waters: occurrence, toxicity, and risk. Environment Chemistry Letters 13(4), 381–394.

Colon I, Caro D, Bourdony CJ, Rosario O. 2000. Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(9), 895–900.

Damgaard IN, Main KM, Toppari J, Skakkebaek NE. 2002. Impact of exposure to endocrine disrupters in utero and in childhood on adult reproduction. Best Pract. Res. Cl. En. 16(2), 289–309.

Darbre PD, Aljarrah A, Miller WR, Coldham NG, Sauer MJ, Pope GS. 2004. Concentrations of parabens in human breast tumors. J. Appl. Toxicol. 24, 5-13.

Daughton C, Ternes T. 1999. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change? Environ. Health Perspect. 107, 907–938.

Dey S, Bano F, Malik A. 2019. Pharmaceuticals and personal care product (PPCP) contamination—a global discharge inventory. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products: Waste Management and Treatment Technology 1, 1–26.

Dodson RE, Nishioka M, Standley LJ, Perovich LJ, Brody JG, Rudel RA. 2012. Endocrine disruptors and asthma-associated chemicals in consumer products. Environ. Health Perspect. 120, 935-43.

Falconer IR, Chapman HF, Moore MR, Ranmuthugala G. 2006. Endocrine-disrupting compounds: a review of their challenge to sustainable and safe water supply and water reuse. Environ. Toxicol. 10(1002), 181–191.

Fekadu S, Alemayehu E, Dewil R, Van der Bruggen B. 2019. Pharmaceuticals in freshwater aquatic environments: A comparison of the African and European challenge. Sci. Total Environ. 654, 324–337.

Fick J, Soderstrom H, Lindberg RH, Phan C, Tysklind M, Larsson DGJ. 2009. Contamination of surface, ground, and drinking water from pharmaceutical production. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 28(12), 2522-2527.

Fry DM. 1995. Reproductive effects in birds exposed to pesticides and industrial chemicals. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(7), 165–171.

Gambeta E, Chichorro JG, Zamponi GW. 2020. Trigeminal neuralgia: An overview from pathophysiology to pharmacological treatments. Mol Pain 16, 1744806920901890.

Gani KM, Kazmi AA. 2016. Contamination of emerging contaminants in Indian aquatic sources: first overview of the situation. J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 04016026, 1-12.

Gee RH, Charles A, Taylor N, Darbre PD. 2007. Oestrogenic and androgenic activity of triclosan in breast cancer cells. Journal of Applied Toxicology 28(1), 78–91.

Geer LA, Pycke BFG, Waxenbaum J, Sherer DM, Abulafia O, Halden RU. 2017. Association of birth outcomes with fetal exposure to parabens, triclosan, and triclocarban in an immigrant population in Brooklyn, New York. J. Hazard. Mater. 323, 177-83.

Gilbert M, Masters W, Ela P. 2013. Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science (3rd ed.), Chapter Water Pollution, Page 195.

Gokulakrishnan S, Chandraraj K, Gummadi SN. 2005. Microbial and enzymatic methods for the removal of caffeine. Enz. Micro. Technol. 37(2), 225–232.

Gonsioroski A, Mourikes VE, Flaws JA. 2020. Endocrine disruptors in water and their effects on the reproductive system. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 21(6), 1929.

Gore AC, Crews D, Doan LL, La Merrill M, Patisaul H, Zota A. 2014. Introduction to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)—A guide for public interest organizations and policy-makers. Endocr. Soc. J. 99, 21–22.

Goswami P, Kalita JC. 2013. Endocrine disrupting effects of butylparaben – a review. International Research Journal of Pharmacy 4(1).

Government of India Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers Department of Pharmaceuticals. 2020-21. Annual report.

Guillette LJ Jr, Gross TS, Masson GR, Matter JM, Percival HF, Woodward AR. 1994. Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida. Environ. Health Perspect. 102(8), 680–688.

Gunnarsson L, Kristiansson E, Rutgersson C, Sturve J, Fick J, Forlin L, Joakim Larsson DG. 2009. Pharmaceutical industry effluent diluted 1:500 affects global gene expression, cytochrome P450 1A activity, and plasma phosphate in fish. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 28, 2639–2647.

Guo Y, Alomirah H, Cho H-S, Minh TB, Mohd MA, Nakata H, Kannan K. 2011. Occurrence of phthalate metabolites in human urine from several Asian countries. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45(7), 3138-3144. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103879m.

Harley KG, Berger KP, Kogut K, Parra K, Lustig RH, Greenspan LC, Calafat AM, Ye X, Eskenazi B. 2018. Association of phthalates, parabens, and phenols found in personal care products with pubertal timing in girls and boys. Hum. Reprod. 34, 109-17.

Hashemipour M, Kelishadi R, Amin MM, Ebrahim K. 2018. Is there any association between phthalate exposure and precocious puberty in girls? Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 25, 13589-96.

Heberer T, Schmidt-Bäumler K, Stan HJ. 1998. Occurrence and distribution of organic contaminants in the aquatic system in Berlin. Part II: Substituted phenols in Berlin surface water. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica 26, 272–278.

Heberer T. 2002. Occurrence, fate, and removal of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment: a review of recent research data. Toxicol. Lett. 131, 5–17.

Howell WM, Black DA, Bortone SA. 1980. Abnormal expression of second-order sex characters in a population of mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis holbrooki: evidence from environmentally induced masculinization. Copeia 4, 676–681.

Huang S, Li J, Xu S, Zhao H, Li Y, Zhou Y, Fang J, Liao J, Cai Z, Xia W. 2019. Bisphenol A and bisphenol S exposures during pregnancy and gestational age – A longitudinal study in China. Chemosphere 237, 124426.

Inadera H. 2006. The immune system as a target for environmental chemicals: Xenoestrogen and other compounds. Toxicol. Lett. 164, 191–206.

Jackson-Browne MS, Papandonatos GD, Chen A, Yolton K, Lanphear BP, Braun JM. 2019. Early-life triclosan exposure and parent-reported behavior problems in 8-year-old children. Environ. Int. 128, 446-56.

Jayashree, Murugaragavan. 2021. Impact of personal care products on human health. Sabujeema: An International Multidisciplinary 1(5).

Jiang Y, Zhao H, Xia W, Li Y, Liu H, Hao K, Chen J, Sun X, Liu W, Li J, Peng Y, Hu C, Li C, Zhang B, Lu S, Cai Z, Xu S. 2019. Prenatal exposure to benzophenones, parabens and triclosan and neurocognitive development at 2 years. Environ. Int. 126, 413-21.

Jones OAH, Voulvoulis N, Lester JN. 2003. Potential impact of pharmaceuticals on environmental health. Bull. World Health Org. 81(10), 401–427.

Kang H, Kim S, Lee G, Lee I, Lee JP, Lee J, Park H, Moon HB, Park J, Kim S, Choi G, Choi K. 2019. Urinary metabolites of dibutyl phthalate and benzophenone-3 are potential chemical risk factors of chronic kidney function markers among healthy women. Environ. Int. 124, 354-60.

Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Dinsdale RM, Guwy AJ. 2009. The removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of receiving waters. Water Res. 43, 363-380.

Kavlock RJ, Daston GP. 1996. Research needs for the risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disruptors: A report of the U.S. EPA-sponsored workshop. Environ. Health Perspect. 194(supplement 4), 715-740.

Kinney CA, Furlong ET, Werner SL. 2006. Presence and distribution of wastewater-derived pharmaceuticals in soil irrigated with reclaimed water. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25(2), 317-26.

Klosterhaus SL, Grace R, Hamilton MC, Yee D. 2013. Method validation and reconnaissance of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and alkyl phenols in surface waters, sediments, and mussels in an urban estuary. Environ. Int. 54, 92–99.

Kolpin DW, Furlong ET, Meyer MT, Thurman EM, Zaugg SD, Barber LB, Buxton HT. 2002. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999-2000: A national reconnaissance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36(6), 1202-1211.

Kumar A, Batley GE, Nidumolu B, Hutchinson TH. 2016. Derivation of water quality guidelines for priority pharmaceuticals. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 35, 1815–1824.

Lapworth DJ, Das P, Shaw A, Mukherjee A, Civil W, Petersen JO, Gooddy DC, Wakefield O, Finlayson A, Krishan G, Sengupta P, MacDonald AM. 2018. Deep urban groundwater vulnerability in India revealed through the use of emerging organic contaminants and residence time tracers. Environ. Pollut. 240, 938-949.

Larsson D. 2014. Pollution from drug manufacturing: review and perspectives. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B. 369(1656).

Larsson DGJ, Adolfsson-Erici M, Parkkonen J, Pettersson M, Berg AH, Olsson PE, Förlin L. 1999. Ethinyloestradiol – an undesired fish contraceptive? Aquat. Toxicol. 45(2-3), 91–97.

Larsson DGJ, de Pedro C, Paxeus N. 2007. Effluent from drug manufacturers contains extremely high levels of pharmaceuticals. J. Hazard. Mater. 148(3), 751–755.

Lemus JA, Blanco G, Grande J, Arroyo B, García-Montijano M, Martínez F. 2008. Antibiotics threaten wildlife: circulating quinolone residues and disease in avian scavengers. PLoS One 3(1).

Li H, Zhao Y, Chen L, Su Y, Li X, Jin L, Ge RS. 2017. Triclocarban and triclosan inhibit human aromatase via different mechanisms. Biomed. Res. Int. 8284097.

Lim S, Yoon JH. 2019. Exposure to environmental pollutants and a marker of early kidney injury in the general population: Results of a nationally representative cross-sectional study based on the Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) 2012–2014. Sci. Total Environ. 681, 175-82.

Lintelmann J, Katayama A, Kurihara N, Shore L, Wenzel A. 2003. Endocrine disruptors in the environment. Pure Appl. Chem. 75(5), 631–681.

Liu H, Ma L, Zhao J, Liu J, Yan J, Ruan J, Hong F. 2008. Biochemical toxicity of nano-anatase TiO2 particles in mice. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 129(1–3), 170–180.

Lu S, Yu Y, Ren L, Zhang X, Liu G, Yu Y. 2018. Estimation of intake and uptake of bisphenols and triclosan from personal care products by dermal contact. Sci. Total Environ. 621, 1389-96.

Luo Y, Guo W, Ngo HH, Nghiem LD, Hai FI, Zhang J, Liang S, Wang XC. 2014. A review on the occurrence of micropollutants in the aquatic environment and their fate and removal during wastewater treatment. Sci. Total Environ. 473–474, 619–641.

Lv Y, Lu S, Dai Y, Rui C, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Li Y, Pang Q, Fan R. 2017. Higher dermal exposure of cashiers to BPA and its association with DNA oxidative damage. Environ. Int. 98, 69-74.

Mackenzie CA, Lockridge A, Keith M. 2005. Declining sex ratio in a First Nation community. Environ. Health Perspect. 113(10), 1295–1298.

Milošević N, Milić N, Živanović Bosić D, Bajkin I, Perčić I, Abenavoli L, Medić Stojanoska M. 2017. Potential influence of phthalates on normal liver function and cardiometabolic risk in males. Environ. Monit. Assess. 190, 17.

Mishra K, Sharma RC. 2011. Contamination of aquatic system by chlorinated pesticides and their spatial distribution over North-East India. Toxicol. Environ. Health Sci. 3(3), 144-155.

Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah. 2017. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the freshwater aquatic environment, 1-16.

Mutiyar P, Mittal A. 2014. Occurrences and fate of selected human antibiotics in influents and effluents of sewage treatment plant and effluent-receiving river Yamuna in Delhi (India). Environ. Monit. Assess. 186, 541–557.

Nikolaou AS, Meric D, Fatta. 2007. Occurrence patterns of pharmaceuticals in water and wastewater environments. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 387, 1225–1234.

Oaks JL, Gilbert M, Virani MZ, Watson RT, Meteyer CU, Rideout BA, Shivaprasad HL, Ahmed S, Chaudhry MJI, Arshad M, Mahmood S, Ali A, Khan AA. 2004. Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature 427, 630–3.

Orlando EF, Guillette LJ. 2007. Sexual dimorphic responses in wildlife exposed to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Environ. Res. 104(1), 163–173.

Papageorgiou M, Kosma C, Lambropoulou D. 2016. Seasonal occurrence, removal, mass loading, and environmental risk assessment of 55 pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Central Greece. Sci. Total Environ. 543, 547–569.

Parada H, Gammon MD, Ettore HL, Chen J, Calafat AM, Neugut AI, Santella RM, Wolff MS, Teitelbaum SL. 2019. Urinary concentrations of environmental phenols and their associations with breast cancer incidence and mortality following breast cancer. Environ. Int. 130, 104890.

Parrott JL, Blunt BR. 2005. Life-cycle exposure of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) to an ethinyl estradiol concentration below 1 ng/L reduces egg fertilization success and demasculinizes males. Environ. Toxicol. 20, 131-141.

Pollack AZ, Buck Louis GM, Chen Z, Sun L, Trabert B, Guo Y, Kannan K. 2015. Bisphenol A, benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters, and phthalates in relation to uterine leiomyoma. Environ. Res. 137, 101-7.

Pollack K, Balazs K, Ogunseitan O. 2009. Proteomic assessment of caffeine effects on coral symbionts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43(6), 2085-91.

Pomati F, Netting AG, Calamari D, Neilan BA. 2004. Effects of erythromycin, tetracycline, and ibuprofen on the growth of Synechocystis sp. and Lemna minor. Aquat. Toxicol. 67, 387–396.

Prabhasankar V, Joshua D, Balakrishna K, Siddiqui I, Taniyasu S, Yamashita N, Kannan K, Akiba M, Praveen Kumar Reddy Y, Guruge K. 2016. Removal rates of antibiotics in four sewage treatment plants in South India. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23, 8679–8685.

Proffitt F, Bagla P. 2004. Circling in on a vulture killer. Science 306, 223.

Purdom CE, Hardiman PA, Bye VJ, Eno NC, Tyler CR, Sumpter JP. 1994. Estrogenic effects of effluents from sewage treatment works. Chem. Ecol. 8, 275–285.

Purdom IFH, Randall GLP. 1998. Natural and anthropogenic environmental oestrogens: the scientific basis for risk assessment: principles of risk assessment. Pure Appl. Chem. 70(9), 1671–1683.

Quintiles IMS. 2020. Global medicines use in 2020: Outlook and implications. Available online: https://pt.slideshare.net/IMSHealth1/global-medicines-use-in-2020-outlook-and-implications.

Ramaswamy BR, Shanmugam G, Velua G, Rengarajan B, Larsson DGJ. 2011. GC-MS analysis and ecotoxicological risk assessment of triclosan, carbamazepine, and parabens in Indian rivers. J. Hazard. Mater. 186, 1586-1593.

Ramos S, Homem V, Alves A, Santos L. 2016. A review of organic UV-filters in wastewater treatment plants. Environ. Int. 86, 24–44.

Reddy BS, Rozati R, Reddy BVR, Raman NVVSS. 2006. Association of phthalate esters with endometriosis in Indian women. Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.

Report on Indian Cosmetics Industry. Ministry of Economy and Industry (Foreign Trade Administration), Consulate General of Israel, Mumbai Economic Department.

Rocha MJ, Madureira TV, Venade CS, Martins I, Campos J, Rocha E. 2019. Presence of estrogenic endocrine disruptors in three European estuaries in Northwest Iberian Peninsula (Portugal). Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 101, 244–264.

Sackaria M, Elango L. 2019. Organic micropollutants in groundwater of India—A review. Water Environ. Res. 92, 504-23.

Safe SH. 2000. Endocrine disruption and human health: is there a problem? An update. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(6), 487–493.

Santos J, Aparicio I, Alonso E. 2007. Occurrence and risk assessment of pharmaceutically active compounds in wastewater treatment plants. A case study: Seville city (Spain). Environ. Int. 33, 596–601.

Scinicariello F, Buser MC. 2016. Serum testosterone concentrations and urinary bisphenol A, benzophenone-3, triclosan, and paraben levels in male and female children and adolescents: NHANES 2011-2012. Environ. Health Perspect. 124, 1898-904.

Seiler RL, Steven ZD, Thomas JM, Howcroft DL. 1999. Caffeine and pharmaceuticals as indicators of wastewater contamination in wells. Ground Water. 37(3), 405–410.

Sharma BM, Bečanová J, Scheringer M, Sharma A, Bharat GK, Whitehead PG, Klánová J, Nizzetto L. 2019. Health and ecological risk assessment of emerging contaminants (pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and artificial sweeteners) in surface and groundwater (drinking water) in the Ganges River Basin, India. Sci. Total Environ. 646, 1459–1467.

Sharma VK, Anquandah GAK, Nesnas N. 2009. Kinetics of the oxidation of endocrine disruptor nonylphenol by ferrate(VI). Environ. Chem. Lett. 7, 115–119.

Sharpe RM, Irvine DS. 2004. How strong is the evidence of a link between environmental chemicals and adverse effects on human reproductive health? Brit. Med. J. 328, 447–451.

Skarha J, Mínguez-Alarcón L, Williams PL, Korevaar TIM, de Poortere RA, Broeren MAC, Ford JB, Eliot M, Hauser R, Braun JM. 2019. Cross-sectional associations between urinary triclosan and serum thyroid function biomarker concentrations in women. Environ. Int. 122, 256-62.

Smarr MM, Honda M, Kannan K, Chen Z, Kim S, Louis GMB. 2018. Male urinary biomarkers of antimicrobial exposure and bi-directional associations with semen quality parameters. Reprod. Toxicol. 77, 103-8.

Snyder EM, Pleus RC, Snyder SA. 2005. Pharmaceuticals and EDCs in the US water industry: An update. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 97(11), 32–36.

Snyder SA, Adham S, Redding AM, Cannon FS, Decarolis J, Oppenheimer J, Wert EC, Yoon Y. 2006. Role of membranes and activated carbon in the removal of endocrine disruptors and pharmaceuticals. Desalination 202, 156–181.

Snyder SA, Westerhoff P, Yoon Y, Sedlak DL. 2003. Pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and endocrine disruptors in water: implications for the water industry. Environ. Eng. Sci. 20(5), 449–469.

Stackelberg PE, Furlong ET, Meyer MT, Zaugg SD, Henderson AK, Reissman DB. 2004. Persistence of pharmaceutical compounds and other organic wastewater contaminants in a conventional drinking water treatment plant. Sci. Total Environ. 329, 99–113.

Subedi B, Balakrishna K, Joshua DJ, Kannan K. 2017. Mass loading and removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products including psychoactives, antihypertensives, and antibiotics in two sewage treatment plants in Southern India. Chemosphere 167, 429–437.

Subedi B, Balakrishna K, Sinha R, Yamashita N, Balasubramanian V, Kannan K. 2015a. Mass loading and removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, including psychoactive and illicit drugs and artificial sweeteners, in five sewage treatment plants in India. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 3, 2882–2891.

Sumpter JP. 2005. Endocrine disruptors in the aquatic environment: an overview. Acta Hydroch. Hydrob. 33(1), 9–16.

Taggart MA, Senacha KR, Green RE, Cuthbert R, Jhala YV, Meharg AA, Mateo R, Pain DJ. 2009. Analysis of nine NSAIDs in ungulate tissues available to critically endangered vultures in India. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 4561–4566.

Ternes TA, Joss A, Siegrist H. 2004. Scrutinizing pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(20), 392A-399A.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2007. Senior Policy Council. Nanotechnology White Paper. http://www.epa.gov/osa/pdfs/nanotech/epananotechnology-whitepaper-0207.pdf.

UC Davis. 2014. Anti-bacterial personal hygiene products may not be worth potential risks. UC Davis Health System Feature Story.

UNEP, WHO. 2012. State of the science of endocrine disrupting chemicals. ISBN: 978-92-807-3274-0 (UNEP) and 978-92-4-150503-1 (WHO).

Urinary Concentrations of Triclosan in the U.S. Population: 2003–2004. 2008. Environ. Health Perspect. 116(3), 303–307. Published online 2007 Dec 7. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10768.

Van Boeckel TP, Brower C, Gilbert M, Grenfell BT, Levin SA, Robinson TP, Teillant A, Laxminarayan R. 2015. Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112(18), 5649–5654.

Watkins DJ, Ferguson KK, Anzalota Del Toro LV, Alshawabkeh AN, Cordero JF, Meeker JD. 2015. Associations between urinary phenol and paraben concentrations and markers of oxidative stress and inflammation among pregnant women in Puerto Rico. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. 218, 212-9.

Wei L, Qiao P, Shi Y, Ruan Y, Yin J, Wu Q, Shao B. 2017. Triclosan/triclocarban levels in maternal and umbilical blood samples and their association with fetal malformation. Clin. Chim. Acta. 466, 133-7.

Westerhoff P. 2003. Removal of endocrine disruptors, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products during water treatment. Southwest Hydrol. 2(6), 18–19.

Williams M, Kookana RS, Mehta A, Yadav SK, Tailor BL, Maheshwari B. 2019. Emerging contaminants in a river receiving untreated wastewater from an Indian urban centre. Sci. Total Environ. 647, 1256-1265.

Woodrow Wilson International Center of Scholars (WWIC). 2010. Consumer products. The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/

World Health Organization. 2011. Pharmaceuticals in drinking-water. 1–49.

Yang GC, Yen CH, Wang CL. 2014. Monitoring and removal of residual phthalate esters and pharmaceuticals in the drinking water of Kaohsiung City, Taiwan. J. Hazard. Mater. 277, 53–61.

Yazdankhah SP, Scheie AA, Høiby EA, Lunestad B-T, Heir E, Fotland TØ, Naterstad K, Kruse H. 2006. Triclosan and antimicrobial resistance in bacteria: an overview. Microb. Drug Resist. 12, 83-90.

Ye J, Zhu W, Liu H, Mao Y, Jin F, Zhang J. 2018. Environmental exposure to triclosan and polycystic ovary syndrome: a cross-sectional study in China. BMJ 8, e019707.

Ye X, Bishop AM, Reidy JA, Needham LL, Calafat AM. 2006. Parabens as urinary biomarkers of exposure in humans. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 1843-6.

Zhou Y, Yao Y, Shao Y, Qu W, Chen Y, Jiang Q. 2019. Urinary bisphenol analogues concentrations and biomarkers of oxidative DNA and RNA damage in Chinese school children in East China: a repeated measures study. Environ. Pollut. 254, 112921.

Zhou Z, Lei Y, Wei W, Zhao Y, Jiang Y, Wang N, Li X, Chen X. 2019. Association between prenatal exposure to bisphenol A and birth outcomes: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 98, e17672.

Zoeller RT, Brown TR, Doan LL, Gore AC, Skakkebaek NE, Soto AM, Woodruff TJ, Saal FSV. 2012. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and public health protection: a statement of principles from The Endocrine Society. Endocrinology 153, 4097–4110.