The novel therapeutic implications of emerging biotechnologies in diagnostics and treatment of prostate cancer
Paper Details
The novel therapeutic implications of emerging biotechnologies in diagnostics and treatment of prostate cancer
Abstract
The definitive goal of present study is to summarize the role of biotechnology in developing new therapeutic strategies for metastasized prostate cancer. Globally prostate cancer is considered as the second deadliest tumor of men due to limitations of standard therapies. Prostate cancer is highly prevalent in more developed countries such as America and Australia as compared to less developed countries. Traditional chemotherapeutic drugs and independent metastasized prostate cancer treatments poised the enthusiasm for advanced approaches such as immunotherapy, combined gene therapy and Nano biotechnology. These advanced initiatives promised better understandings of the genetic basis biochemical pathways of prostate cancer and make cancers therapies more personalized and predictive. Here we have provided a timely overview about current and near term applications of emerging biotechnologies as a perspective of future search regarding to in vitro diagnostics, in vivo diagnosis and in vivo therapeutics. This review outlines the importance of early prostate cancer diagnosis by tackling the problems of tumor microenvironment interactions with the hope of advancing new concepts in the era of treatment. Furthermore, study explained recent trends of prostate cancer incidence, mortality and survival rate among developed and Asian countries that would urge scientists for the development of newer molecular markers and imaging technologies for its management.
Ammirante M, Luo JL, Grivennikov S, Nedospasov S, Karin M. 2010. B-cell-derived lymphotoxin promotes castration-resistant prostate cancer. Nature 464, 302-305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08782
Anastasiadis AG, Bemis DL, Stisser BC, Salomon L, Ghafar MA, Buttyan R. 2003. Tumor cell hypoxia and the hypoxia-response signaling system as a target for prostate cancer therapy. Current drug targets 4, 191-196.
Andreu P, Johansson M, Affara NI, Pucci F, Tan T, Junankar S, Korets L, Lam J, Tawfik, D, DeNardo DG. 2010. FcRγ activation regulates inflammation-associated squamous carcinogenesis. Cancer cell 17, 121-134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2009.12.019
Andriole GL, Bostwick DG, Brawley OW, Gomella LG, Marberger M, Montorsi F, Pettaway CA, Tammela TL, Teloken C, Tindall DJ. 2010. Effect of dutasteride on the risk of prostate cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 362, 1192-1202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0908127
Aragon-Ching JE A AJB. 2013. The changing landscape in the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Ther Advance Medical Oncology 5.1 25-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1758834012458137.
Association AU. 2011. AUA responds to new recommendations on prostate cancer screening [press release]. Linthicum, MD: American Urological Association7.
Ast G. 2003. Drug-targeting strategies for prostate cancer. Current pharmaceutical design 9, 455-466. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612033391603
Bar H, Yacoby I, Benhar I. 2008. Killing cancer cells by targeted drug-carrying phage nanomedicines. BioMed Central biotechnology 8, 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6750-8-37.
Bartel DP. 2004. MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function. cell 116, 281-297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(04)00045-5.
Bill-Axelson A, Holmberg L, Ruutu M, Häggman M, Andersson SO, Bratell S, Spångberg A, Busch C, Nordling S, Garmo H. 2005. Radical prostatectomy versus watchful waiting in early prostate cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 352, 1977-1984. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1011967
Boring CC, ST, Tong T, Health CW. 1992. Jr Cancer statistics for African Americans Erratum.A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 42, 127-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/canjclin.42.1.19
Calin GA, Croce CM. 2006. MicroRNA signatures in human cancers. Nature Reviews Cancer 6, 857. http://dx.doi.org866.10.1038/nrc1997
Camps JL, Chang SM, Hsu T, Freeman MR, Hong SJ, Zhau HE, Von Eschenbach AC, Chung L. 1990. Fibroblast-mediated acceleration of human epithelial tumor growth in vivo. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 87, 75-79.
Caram ME, Skolarus TA, Cooney KA.2016. Limitations of Prostate-specific Antigen Testing After a Prostate Cancer Diagnosis. European urology 70, 209-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2015.12.045
Carter HB, Ferrucci L, Kettermann A, Landis, P, Wright EJ, Epstein JI, Trock BJ, Metter EJ. 2006. Detection of life-threatening prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen velocity during a window of curability. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 98, 1521-1527.
Carter HB, Pearson, JD, Metter, EJ, Brant, LJ, Chan, DW, Andres R, Fozard JL, Walsh PC. 1992. Longitudinal evaluation of prostate-specific antigen levels in men with and without prostate disease. Journal of the American Medical Association 267, 2215-2220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03480160073037
Chang SL, Harshman LC, Presti JC. 2010. Impact of common medications on serum total prostate-specific antigen levels: analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Journal of clinical oncology 28, 3951-3957. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2009.27.9406
Chen C. 2005. MicroRNAs as oncogenes and tumor suppressors. New England Journal of Medicine 353, 1768. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.08.028
Chen X, Ba Y, Ma L, Cai X, Yin Y, Wang K, Guo J, Zhang Y, Chen J, Guo X. 2008. Characterization of microRNAs in serum: a novel class of biomarkers for diagnosis of cancer and other diseases. Cell research 18, 997-1006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/cr.2008.282
Chi KN, Hotte SJ, Evan YY, Tu D, Eigl BJ, Tannock I, Saad F, North S, Powers J, Gleave ME. 2010. Randomized phase II study of docetaxel and prednisone with or without OGX-011 in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology 28, 4247-4254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2009.26.8771
Chi KN, Zoubeidi A, Gleave ME. 2008. Custirsen (OGX-011): a second-generation antisense inhibitor of clusterin for the treatment of cancer. Expert opinion on investigational drugs 17, 1955-1962. http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/13543780802528609
Chu M, Chang Y, Guo Y, Wang N, Cui J, Gao WQ. 2015. Regulation and methylation of tumor suppressor miR-124 by androgen receptor in prostate cancer cells. PloS one 10, e0116197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116197
Chung L. 1994. The role of stromal-epithelial interaction in normal and malignant growth. Cancer surveys 23, 33-42.
Chung LW. 1991. Fibroblasts are critical determinants in prostatic cancer growth and dissemination. Cancer and Metastasis Reviews 10, 263-274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00050797
Chung LW, Baseman A, Assikis V, Zhau, HE. 2005. Molecular insights into prostate cancer progression: the missing link of tumor microenvironment. The Journal of urology 173, 10-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ju.0000141582.15218.10
Collis SJ, Swartz MJ, Nelson WG, DeWeese TL. 2003. Enhanced radiation and chemotherapy-mediated cell killing of human cancer cells by small inhibitory RNA silencing of DNA repair factors. Cancer research 63, 1550-1554.
Cuenca AG, Jiang H, Hochwald SN, Delano M, Cance WG, Grobmyer SR. 2006. Emerging implications of nanotechnology on cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. Cancer 107, 459-466. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.22035
Curado MP, Edwards B, Shin HR, Storm H, Ferlay J, Heanue M, Boyle P. 2007. Cancer incidence in five continents, Volume IX. IARC Press, International Agency for Research on Cancer.
D’Amico AV, Whittington R, Malkowicz SB, Schultz D, Blank K, Broderick GA, Tomaszewski JE, Renshaw AA, Kaplan I, Beard CJ. 1998. Biochemical outcome after radical prostatectomy, external beam radiation therapy, or interstitial radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer. Journal of the American Medical Association 280, 969-974. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.11.969
de Bono JS, Oudard S, Ozguroglu M., Hansen, S, Machiels JP, Kocak I, Gravis G, Bodrogi I., Mackenzie MJ, Shen L. 2010. Prednisone plus cabazitaxel or mitoxantrone for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer progressing after docetaxel treatment: a randomised open-label trial. The Lancet 376, 1147-1154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61389-X
El-Sayed IH, Huang X, El-Sayed MA. 2006. Selective laser photo-thermal therapy of epithelial carcinoma using anti-EGFR antibody conjugated gold nanoparticles. Cancer letters 239, 129-135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2005.07.035
Farokhzad OC, Cheng J, Teply BA, Sherifi I, Jon S, Kantoff PW, Richie JP, Langer R. 2006. Targeted nanoparticle-aptamer bioconjugates for cancer chemotherapy in vivo. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, 6315-6320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0601755103
Ferlay J, Bray F, Pisani P, Parkin DM. 2004. IARC Cancer Base No. 5 (version 2.0). IARC Press, Lyon.
Ferrara N. 2005. VEGF as a therapeutic target in cancer. Oncology 69, 11-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000088479)
Ferrari M. 2005. Cancer nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges. Nature Reviews Cancer 5, 161-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc1566
Forman D. 2013. Cancer incidence in five continents. International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Gao X, Yang L, Petros JA, Marshall FF, Simons JW, Nie S. 2005. In vivo molecular and cellular imaging with quantum dots. Current opinion in biotechnology 16, 63-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2004.11.003
Gardner TA, Sloan J, Raikwar SP, Kao C. 2002. Prostate cancer gene therapy: past experiences and future promise. Cancer and Metastasis Reviews 21, 137-145.
Gerber GS, Thisted RA, Scardino PT, Frohmuller HG, Schroeder FH, Paulson DF, Middleton AW, Rukstalis DB, Smith JA, Schellhammer PF. 1996. Results of radical prostatectomy in men with clinically localized prostate cancer: multi-institutional pooled analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association 276, 615-619. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1996.03540080037026
Gradishar WJ, Tjulandin S, Davidson N, Shaw H, Desai N, Bhar P, Hawkins M, O’Shaughnessy J. 2005. Phase III trial of nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel compared with polyethylated castor oil–based paclitaxel in women with breast cancer. Journal of clinical oncology 23, 7794-7803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2005.04.937
Grouse LH, Munson PJ, Nelson PS. 2001. Sequence databases and microarrays as tools for identifying prostate cancer biomarkers. Urology 57, 154-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(00)00963-8
Gururajan M, Posadas EM, Chung LW. 2012. Future perspectives of prostate cancer therapy. Translational andrology and urology 1, 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3978/j.ssn.22234783.2012.01.03
Hirsch LR, Stafford R, Bankson J, Sershen S, Rivera B, Price R, Hazle J, Halas, NJ, West J. 2003. Nanoshell-mediated near-infrared thermal therapy of tumors under magnetic resonance guidance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100, 13549-13554. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2232479100
Hussain M, Tangen CM, Higano C, Schelhammer PF, Faulkner J, Crawford ED, Wilding G, Akdas A, Small EJ, Donnelly B. 2006. Absolute prostate-specific antigen value after androgen deprivation is a strong independent predictor of survival in new metastatic prostate cancer: data from Southwest Oncology Group Trial 9346 (INT-0162). Journal of Clinical Oncology 24, 3984-3990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2006.06.4246
Jain RK. 2001. Normalizing tumor vasculature with anti-angiogenic therapy: a new paradigm for combination therapy. Nature medicine 7, 987-989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm0901-987
July, L.V., Akbari, M., Zellweger, T., Jones, E.C., Goldenberg, S.L., Gleave, M.E.2002. Clusterin expression is significantly enhanced in prostate cancer cells following androgen withdrawal therapy. The Prostate 50, 179-188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pros.10047
K Takayama1 K, Kaneshiro2 S, Tsutsumi2 K, Horie-Inoue3 K, Ikeda3 T, Urano1,3, N, Ijichi3 Y, Ouchi K, Shirahige H, Aburatani Inoue S.2007. Identification of novel androgen response genes in prostate cancer cells by coupling chromatin immunoprecipitation and genomic microarray analysis. Oncogene 26, 4453–4463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1210229
Kaliberov S, Kaliberova L, Buchsbaum, D. 2005. Combined ionizing radiation and sKDR gene delivery for treatment of prostate carcinomas. Gene therapy 12, 407-417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1210229
Kamangar F, Dores GM, Anderson WF. 2006. Patterns of cancer incidence, mortality, and prevalence across five continents: Defining priorities to reduce cancer disparities in different geographic regions of the world. Journal of Clinical Oncology 24, 2137 –2150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2005.05.2308
Kim WT, Kim WJ. 2013. MicroRNAs in prostate cancer. Prostate international 1, 3-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.12954/PI.12011
Kubo H, Gardner TA, Wada Y, Koeneman KS, Gotoh A, Yang L, Kao C, Lim SD, Amin MB, Yang H. 2003. Phase I dose escalation clinical trial of adenovirus vector carrying osteocalcin promoter-driven herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase in localized and metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Human gene therapy 14, 227-241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/10430340360535788.
Kwon GS. 2003. Polymeric micelles for delivery of poorly water-soluble compounds. Critical reviews in therapeutic drug carrier systems 20, 357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/CritRevTherDrugCarrierSyst.v20.i5.20
LaRocque J, Bharali DJ, Mousa SA. 2009. Cancer detection and treatment: the role of nanomedicines. Molecular biotechnology 42, 358-366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12033-009-9161-0
Loeb S, Carter HB, Berndt SI, Ricker W, Schaeffer EM. 2011. Complications after prostate biopsy: data from SEER-Medicare. The Journal of urology 186, 1830-1834. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2011.06.057
Loo C, Lin A, Hirsch L, Lee MH, Barton J, Halas N, West J, Drezek R. 2004. Nanoshell-enabled photonics-based imaging and therapy of cancer. Technology in cancer research & treatment 3, 33-40.
Mabjeesh N, Zhong H, Simons J. 2002. Gene therapy of prostate cancer: current and future directions. Endocrine-related cancer 9, 115-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/erc.0.0090115
Martel CL, GP, Meyers FJ, Lara PN. 2003. Current strategies in the management of hormone refractory prostate cancer. Cancer Treatment Reviews 29, 171–187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-7372(02)00090-7
Miller JC, Zhou H, Kwekel J, Cavallo R, Burke J, Butler EB, Teh BS, Haab BB. 2003. Antibody microarray profiling of human prostate cancer sera: antibody screening and identification of potential biomarkers. Proteomics 3, 56-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmic.200390009
Mita AC, Denis LJ, Rowinsky EK, DeBono JS, Goetz AD, Ochoa L, Forouzesh B, Beeram M, Naveed M, Tehreem S, Mubeen S, Nadeem F, Zafar F, Irshad M. 2016a. “In-silico analysis of non-synonymous-SNPs of STEAP2: To provoke the progression of prostate cancer,”Open Life Sciences, 11(1), 402-416. https://doi.org/10.1515/biol-2016-0054
Naveed M, Kazmi SK, Anwar F, Arshad F, Dar TZ andZafar M. 2016b.Computational Analysis and Polymorphism study of Tumor Suppressor Candidate Gene-3 for Non Syndromic Autosomal Recessive Mental Retardation. Journalof Applied Bioinformatics& Computational Biology 5, 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-9533.1000127
Naveed M, Ahmed I, Khalid N, Mumtaz AS. 2014. Bioinformatics based structural characterization of glucose dehydrogenase (gdh) gene and growth promoting activity of Leclercia sp. QAU-66. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 45(2), 603-11.
Naveed M, Sohail Y, Khalid N, Ahmed I, Mumtaz AS. 2015. Evaluation of glucose dehydrogenase and pyrroloquinoline quinine (pqq) mutagenesis that renders functional inadequacies in host plants. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 25(8), 1349-60.
Patnaik A, Molpus K. 2009. Phase I and pharmacokinetic study of XRP6258 (RPR 116258A), a novel taxane, administered as a 1-hour infusion every 3 weeks in patients with advanced solid tumors. Clinical Cancer Research 15, 723-730. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-08-0596
Miyake H, Nelson C, Rennie PS, Gleave ME. 2000. Acquisition of chemoresistant phenotype by overexpression of the antiapoptotic gene testosterone-repressed prostate message-2 in prostate cancer xenograft models. Cancer research 60, 2547-2554.
Mohler JL. 2010. The 2010 NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology on prostate cancer. Journal of the national comprehensive cancer network 8, 145-145.
Organization WH. 2004. World Health Report 2004: Changing history. Geneva: WHO. World Health Organization.
Perrin P. 2006. PSA velocity and prostate cancer detection: the absence of evidence is not the evidence of absence. european urology 49, 418-419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2005.12.028
Rhee HW, Zhau HE, Pathak S, Multani AS, Pennanen S, Visakorpi T, Chung LW. 2001. Permanent phenotypic and genotypic changes of prostate cancer cells cultured in a three-dimensional rotating-wall vessel. In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Animal 37, 127-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1290/10712690(2001)037<0127:PPAGCO>2.0.CO;2
Roach M, Thomas K. 2012. Overview of randomized controlled treatment trials for clinically localized prostate cancer: implications for active surveillance and the United States preventative task force report on screening? Monographs-Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2012, 221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jncimonographs/lgs039
Robinson D, Rosell J, Sandblom G, Varenhorst E. 2005. Survival in prostate carcinoma–outcomes from a prospective, population-based cohort of 8887 men with up to 15 years of follow-up: results from three countries in the population-based National Prostate Cancer Registry of Sweden. Cancer 1, 943-951.
Kaliberov SA. 2005. Combined ionizing radiation and sKDR gene delivery for treatment of prostate carcinomas Gene Therapy 12, 407-417.
Sadeghi H, Hitt MM. 2005. Transcriptionally targeted adenovirus vectors. Current gene therapy 5, 411-427. https://doi.org/10.2174/1566523054546189
Sengupta S, Eavarone D, Capila I, Zhao G, Watson N, Kiziltepe T, Sasisekharan R. 2005. Temporal targeting of tumour cells and neovasculature with a nanoscale delivery system. Nature 436, 568-572.
Shen T, Weissleder R, Papisov M, Bogdanov A, Brady TJ. 1993. Monocrystalline iron oxide nanocompounds (MION): physicochemical properties. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 29, 599-604. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrm.1910290504
Shirakawa T, Gotoh A, Wada Y, Kamidono S, Ko SC, Kao C, Gardner TA, Chung LW. 2000. Tissue-specific promoters in gene therapy for the treatment of prostate cancer. Molecular urology 4, 73-82. https://doi.org/10.1089/10915360050138620.
Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. 2012. Cancer statistics. CA a cancer journal for clinicians62, 10-29.
Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. 2016. Cancer statistics, 2016. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians 66, 7-30.
Sim HG, Cheng CW. 2005. Changing demography of prostate cancer in Asia. European Journal of Cancer41, 834–845. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2004.12.033
Smith AM, Dave S, Nie S, True L, Gao X. 2006. Multicolor quantum dots for molecular diagnostics of cancer. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 6, 231-244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14737159.6.2.231
Society AC. 2015. Prostate Cancer. Cancer Information Database.
Sparreboom A, Scripture CD, Trieu V, Williams PJ, De T, Yang A, Beals B, Figg WD, Hawkins M, Desai N. 2005. Comparative preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetics of a cremophor-free, nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel (ABI-007) and paclitaxel formulated in Cremophor (Taxol). Clinical Cancer Research 11, 4136-4143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/10780432.CCR-04-2291
Stadler WM, Cao D, Vogelzang NJ, Ryan CW, Hoving K, Wright R, Karrison T, Vokes EE. 2004. A randomized Phase II trial of the antiangiogenic agent SU5416 in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Clinical cancer research 10, 3365-3370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-03-0404
Steiner MS, Gingrich JR, Chauhan RD. 2002. Prostate cancer gene therapy. Surgical oncology clinics of North America 11, 607-620.
Stevens CW, ZM, Cerniglia GJ. 1996. Ionizing radiation greatly improves gene transfer efficiency in mammalian cells. Human Gene Therapy 7, 1727–1734. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/hum.1996.7.14-1727.
Stroh M, Zimmer JP, Duda DG, Levchenko TS, Cohen KS, Brown EB, Scadden DT, Torchilin, VP, Bawendi MG, Fukumura D. 2005. Quantum dots spectrally distinguish multiple species within the tumor milieu in vivo. Nature medicine 11, 678-682. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm1247
Sung SY, Chung LW. 2002. Prostate tumor‐stroma interaction: molecular mechanisms and opportunities for therapeutic targeting. Differentiation 70, 506-521. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.14320436.2002.700905.x
Tavtigian SV, Simard J, Teng DH, Abtin V, Baumgard M, Beck A, Camp NJ, Carillo AR, Chen Y, Dayananth P. 2001. A candidate prostate cancer susceptibility gene at chromosome 17p. Nature genetics 27, 172-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/84808
Thalmann GN, Rhee H, Sikes RA, Pathak S, Multani A, Zhau HE, Marshall FF, Chung LW. 2010. Human prostate fibroblasts induce growth and confer castration resistance and metastatic potential in LNCaP Cells. European urology 58, 162-172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2009.08.026
Unwin RD, Knowles MA, Selby PJ, Banks RE. 1999. Urological malignancies and the proteomic‐genomic interface. Electrophoresis 20, 3629-3637. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)15222683(19991201)20:18
Welch HG, Albertsen PC. 2009.Prostate cancer diagnosis and treatment after the introduction of prostate-specific antigen screening: 1986–2005. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 101, 1325-1329. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djp278
Wilt T, Brawer M, Jones K, Barry M, Aronson, W, Fox S, Gingrich J, Wei J, Gilhooly P, Grob B.2012.Prostate Cancer Intervention versus Observation Trial Study G ,Radical prostatectomy versus observation for localized prostate cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine 367, 203-213.
Wolf A, Wender RC, Etzioni RB, Thompson IM, D’Amico AV, Volk RJ, Brooks DD, Dash C, Guessous I, Andrews K. 2010. American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of prostate cancer: update 2010. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians 60, 70-98. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.20066
Yacoby I, Bar H, Benhar I. 2007. Targeted drug-carrying bacteriophages as antibacterial nanomedicines. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy 51, 2156-2163.
Yamoah K, Stone N, Stock R. 2011. Impact of race on biochemical disease recurrence after prostate brachytherapy. Cancer 117, 5589-5600. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.26183
Zhang L, Brereton HM, Hahn M, Froscio M, Tilley WD, Brown MP, Barritt GJ. 2003. Expression of Drosophila Ca2+ permeable transient receptor potential-like channel protein in a prostate cancer cell line decreases cell survival. Cancer gene therapy 10, 611-625. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cgt.7700608
Muhammad Naveed, Komal Imran, Ayesha Mushtaq, Sana Tehreem, Sami Ullah Khan (2017), The novel therapeutic implications of emerging biotechnologies in diagnostics and treatment of prostate cancer; IJB, V10, N5, May, P22-42
https://innspub.net/the-novel-therapeutic-implications-of-emerging-biotechnologies-in-diagnostics-and-treatment-of-prostate-cancer/
Copyright © 2017
By Authors and International
Network for Natural Sciences
(INNSPUB) https://innspub.net
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0