A review on medicinal plants with supposed biological activities for the endogenous management of the COVID‐19 pandemic in Benin, Togo, Ghana, Burkina-Faso and Cape Verde

Addo-Fordjour P, Anning A, Akanwariwiak WG. 2012. Medicinal plants of Ghana. In: Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement: Medicinal Plants, 221–246.

Adhikari B, Marasini BP, Rayamajhee B. 2020a. Potential roles of medicinal plants for the treatment of viral diseases focusing on COVID‐19: A review. Phytother Research. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6893

Adhikari SP, Meng S, Wu YJ. 2020b. Epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of coronavirus disease. COVID-19. during the early outbreak period: a scoping review. Infectious Diseases Poverty 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-020-00646-x

Adjanohoun EJ, Adjakidjè V, Ahyi MR. 1986. Contribution aux études ethnobotanique et floristique en Republique populaire du Togo, Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris. Togo.

Adomou A, Yedomonhan H, Djossa B. 2012. Etude Ethnobotanique des plantes médicinales vendues dans le marché d’Abomey-Calavi au Bénin. International Journal Biological Chemical Science 6, 745–772. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v6i2.18

Agbodeka K, Gbekley HE, Karou SD. 2016. Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Malaria in the Plateau Region, Togo. Pharmacognosy Research 8, 12-18. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-8490.178646

Agyepong N, Agyare C, Adarkwa-Yiadom M, Gbedema SY. 2014. Phytochemical Investigation and Anti-Microbial Activity of Clausena Anisata. Willd., Hook. Africa Journal of Traditional Complementary Alternative Medicine 11, 200–209.

Akoègninou A, Van Der Burg WJ, Van Der Maesen LJG. 2006. Flore analytique du Bénin, Backhuys Publishers. Backhuys.

Al-rawi A, Dulaimi H, Rawi M. 2019. Antiviral Activity of Mangifera Extract on Influenza Virus Cultivated in Different Cell Cultures. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology 13, 455–458. https://doi.org/10.22207/JPAM.13.1.50

Appiah KS, Oppong CP, Mardani HK. 2019. Medicinal Plants Used in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality, Southern Ghana: An Ethnobotanical Study. Medicines 6, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6010001

Asase A, Akwetey GA, Achel DG. 2010. Ethnopharmacological use of herbal remedies for the treatment of malaria in the Dangme West District of Ghana. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 129, 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.001

Asase A, Oteng-Yeboah AA, Odamtten GT, Simmonds MSJ. 2005. Ethnobotanical study of some Ghanaian anti-malarial plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 99, 273–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.02.020

Ayisi NK, Nyadedzor C. 2003. Comparative in vitro effects of AZT and extracts of Ocimum gratissimum, Ficus polita, Clausena anisata, Alchornea cordifolia, and Elaeophorbia drupifera against HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections. Antiviral Research 58, 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-3542.02.00166-3

Bagheri G, Martorell M, Ramírez-Alarcón K. 2020. Phytochemical screening of Moringa oleifera leaf extracts and their antimicrobial activities. Cellular and Molecular Biology. Noisy-le-grand 66, 20–26.

Berardini N, Fezer R, Conrad J. 2005. Screening of mango. Mangifera indica L. cultivars for their contents of flavonol O- and xanthone C-glycosides, anthocyanins, and pectin. Journal of Agriculture Food Chemical 53, 1563–1570. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0484069

Bero J, Ganfon H, Jonville MC. 2009. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of plants used in Benin in traditional medicine to treat malaria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 122, 439–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.02.004

Biswas D, Nandy S, Mukherjee A. 2020. Moringa oleifera Lam. and derived phytochemicals as promising antiviral agents: A review. South African Journal of Botany 129, 272–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.07.049

Boadu AA, Asase A. 2017. Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by Some Communities in Southern Ghana. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2017:e3043061. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3043061

Braca A, Sinisgalli C, De Leo M. 2018. Phytochemical Profile, Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Activities of Adansonia digitata L.Baobab. from Mali, as a Source of Health-Promoting Compounds. Molecules 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23123104

Charan J, Bhardwaj P, Dutta S. 2020. Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine .CAM. and Home Remedies by COVID-19 Patients: A Telephonic Survey. Indian Journal Clinic Biochemical 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12291-020-00931-4

Compaoré M, Meda RNT, Zerbo P. 2018. Availability Evaluation of Twelve Antimalarial Medicinal Plants from Western Regions of Burkina Faso. Journal of Diseases and Medicinal Plants 4, 80. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jdmp.20180403.13

Dongmo AB, Nguelefack T, Lacaille-Dubois MA. 2005. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Acacia pennata wild. Mimosaceae. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 98, 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.030

Enemor E, Akagha T, Ken N. 2015. Phytochemical analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of Ethanolic Stem Extracts of Cnestis ferruginea on Multidrug Resistant Bacteria Isolated from Raw Retail Meat Sold in Awka, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Research 7, 1044–1049.

Eurosurverillance editorial team. 2020. Note from the editors: World Health Organization declares novel coronavirus .2019-nCoV. sixth public health emergency of international concern. Euro Surveillance 25. https://doi.org/10.2807/15607917.ES.2020.25.5.200131e

Faccin-Galhardi LC, Aimi Yamamoto K, Ray S.2012. The in vitro antiviral property of Azadirachta indica polysaccharides for poliovirus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 142, 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.04.018

Fatema S, Rode P, Jadhav SB, Farooqui M. 2015. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic study of fibrous part of Adansonia digitata fruit using microwave extraction techniques. Der Pharmacia Lettre 7, 341–347.

Fongnzossie Fedoung E, Biwole AB, Nyangono Biyegue CF. 2021. A review of Cameroonian medicinal plants with potentials for the management of the COVID-19 pandemic. Advances in Traditional Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-021-00567-6

Gbekley HE, Katawa G, Karou SD. 2017. Ethnobotanical study of plants used to treat asthma in the maritime region in Togo. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 14, 196–212. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v14i1

Giri SP, Varma SB. 2015. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of Tectona grandis Linn. stem extract. Journal of Basic Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology 26, 479–484. https://doi.org/10.1515/jbcpp-2014-0043

Haidara M, Diarra ML, Doumbia S, et al. 2020. Plantes médicinales de l’Afrique de l’Ouest pour la prise en charge des affections respiratoires pouvant se manifester au cours de la Covid-19. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 14, 2941–2950.

Health, Pharma and Medtech. 2021. Coronavirus cases by country in Africa 2021. In: Statista. Accessed 28 Apr 2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1170463/coronavirus-cases-in-africa/

Helali A, Mokhtari C, Ghoul M, Belhadef M. 2020. Prévenir l’infection par le COVID-19 : Quelle place pour les plantes médicinales selon la population algérienne ? Prevent COVID-19 infection: What place for medicinal plants according to the Algerian population? 0–000.

Hermans M, Akoègninou A, van der Maesen J. 2004. Medicinal plants used to treat malaria in Southern Benin. Economic Botany 58, S239–S252. [S239: MPUTTM]2.0.CO;2 https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001.2004.58

Hu B, Guo H, Zhou P, Shi ZL. 2021. Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nature Reviews Microbiology 19, 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-00459-7

Hudson JB, Anani K, Lee MK. 2000. Further iinvestigations on the antiviral activities of medicinal plants of togo. Pharmaceutical Biology 38, 46–50. https://doi.org/10.1076/1388-0209.200001.3811-BFT046

Ishola IO, Akindele AJ, Adeyemi OO. 2011. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DC. Connaraceae. methanolic root extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 135, 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.02.024

Kale OE, Awodele O, Akindele AJ. 2019. Acridocarpus Smeathmannii.DC. Guill. & Perr. Root enhanced reproductive behavior and sexual function in male wistar rats: Biochemical and pharmacological mechanisms. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 230, 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.10.024

Komlaga G, Cojean S, Dickson RA. 2016. Antiplasmodial activity of selected medicinal plants used to treat malaria in Ghana. Parasitology Research 115, 3185–3195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-016-5080-8

Koudouvo K, Agboto V, Busia K. 2017a. Enquete ethnobotanique sur les plantes antipaludiques utilisees dans la lutte anti vectorielle au Togo. Journal de la Recherche Scientifique de l’Université de Lomé 19, 63–74. https://doi.org/10.4314/jrsul.v19i3

Koudouvo K, Agboto V, Busia K. 2017b. Enquete ethnobotanique sur les plantes antipaludiques utilisees dans la lutte anti vectorielle au Togo. Journal de la Recherche Scientifique de l’Université de Lomé 19, 63–74. https://doi.org/10.4314/jrsul.v19i3

Koudouvo K, Karou DS, Kokou K. 2011. An ethnobotanical study of anti-malarial plants in Togo Maritime Region. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 134, 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.12.011

Koukouikila-Koussounda F, Abena AA, Nzoungani A. 2012. In Vitro Evaluation of Antiplasmodial Activity of Extracts of Acanthospermum Hispidum DC. Asteraceae. and Ficus Thonningii Blume. Moraceae., Two Plants Used in Traditional Medicine in the Republic of Congo. Africa Journal of Traditionnal Complementary Alternative Medecin 10, 270–276.

Kpabi I, Agban A, Hoekou Y. 2020. Etude ethnobotanique des plantes à activités antiparasitaires utilisées en médecine traditionnelle dans la préfecture de Doufelgou au nord du Togo. Journal of Applied Biosciences 148, 15176–15189. https://doi.org/10.35759/JABs.148.2

Kpadonou Kpoviessi BGH, Kpoviessi SDS, Yayi Ladekan E. 2014. In vitro antitrypanosomal and antiplasmodial activities of crude extracts and essential oils of Ocimum gratissimum Linn from Benin and influence of vegetative stage. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 155, 1417–1423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.014

Kumatia EK, Annan K, Dickson RA. 2017. Antinflammatory and Analgesic Effects in Rodent Models of Ethanol Extract of Clausena anisata Roots and their Chemical Constituents. Natural Product Communication 12, 67–72.

Li Y, Liu X, Guo L. 2020. Traditional Chinese herbal medicine for treating novel coronavirus. COVID-19. pneumonia: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews 9, 75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01343-4

Lu A-P, Jia H-W, Xiao C, Lu QP. 2004. Theory of traditional Chinese medicine and therapeutic method of diseases. World Journal of Gastroenterology 10, 1854–1856. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v10.i13.1854

Luo H, Tang Q, Shang Y. 2020. Can Chinese Medicine Be Used for Prevention of Corona Virus Disease 2019. COVID-19.? A Review of Historical Classics, Research Evidence and Current Prevention Programs. Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11655-020-3192-6

Mahomoodally MF. 2013. Traditional Medicines in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal Plants. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013.e617459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459

Márquez L, Pérez-Nievas BG, Gárate I. 2010. Anti-inflammatory effects of Mangifera indica L. extract in a model of colitis. World Journal of Gastroenterology 16, 4922–4931. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v16.i39.4922

Mistry KS, Sanghvi Z, Parmar G, Shah S. 2014. The antimicrobial activity of Azadirachta indica, Mimusops elengi, Tinospora cardifolia, Ocimum sanctum and 2% chlorhexidine gluconate on common endodontic pathogens: An in vitro study. European Journal of Dentistry 8, 172–177. https://doi.org/10.4103/1305-7456.130591

Moyo M, Aremu AO. 2021. Nutritional, phytochemical and diverse health-promoting qualities of Cleome gynandra. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1867055

Mukhtar M, Arshad M, Ahmad M. 2008a. Antiviral potentials of medicinal plants. Virus Research 131, 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2007.09.008

Mukhtar M, Arshad M, Ahmad M. 2008b. Antiviral potentials of medicinal plants. Virus Research 131, 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2007.09.008

Narendhirakannan RT, Kandaswamy M, Subramanian S. 2005. Anti-inflammatory activity of Cleome gynandra L. on hematological and cellular constituents in adjuvant-induced arthritic rats. Journal of Medicine Food 8, 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2005.8.93

Nguta JM, Appiah-Opong R, Nyarko AK. 2015. Medicinal plants used to treat TB in Ghana. International Journal of Mycobacteriol 4, 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmyco.2015.02.003

Nisar MF, He J, Ahmed A. 2018. Chemical Components and Biological Activities of the Genus Phyllanthus: A Review of the Recent Literature. Molecules 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23102567

Nugraha RV, Ridwansyah H, Ghozali M. 2020. Traditional Herbal Medicine Candidates as Complementary Treatments for COVID-19 : A Review of Their Mechanisms, Pros and Cons. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2020: e2560645. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2560645

Ojo O, Oluyege J, Famurewa O. 2009. Antiviral properties of two Nigerian plants. Africa Journal of Plant Sci 3.

Olanrewaju – Ogunmefun O, Ekundayo E, Akharaiyi F, Ewhenodere D. 2017. Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activities of Tectona grandis L. f. Teak. leaves on microorganisms isolated from decayed food samples. Tropical Plant Research 4, 376–382. https://doi.org/10.22271/tpr.2017.v4.i3.049

Oluwafemi K, Awodele O, Akindele A. 2019. Protective Effects of Acridocarpus smeathmannii. DC.. Guill. & Perr. Root Extract against Phenylhydrazine- Induced Haematotoxicity, Biochemical Changes, and Oxidative Stress in Rats. Biochemistry Insights 12, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178626419883243

OMS. 2002. Stratégie de l’OMS pour la Médecine Traditionnelle pour 2002–2005. Genève

Pongthanapisith V, Ikuta K, Puthavathana P, Leelamanit W. 2013. Antiviral Protein of Momordica charantia L. Inhibits Different Subtypes of Influenza A. Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/729081

Romeiras M, Catarino L, Torrão M. 2011. Diversity and origin of medicinal exotic flora in Cape Verde Islands. Plant Ecology and Evolution 142, 214–225. https://doi.org/10.5091/plecevo.2011.560

Roy H. 2010. Preliminary phytochemical investigation and anthelmintic activity of Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology 2, 217–221.

Sangeetha K, Purushothaman I, Rajarajan S. 2017. Spectral characterisation, antiviral activities, in silico ADMET and molecular docking of the compounds isolated from Tectona grandis to chikungunya virus. Biomed Pharmacother 87, 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2016.12.069

Sanon S, Ollivier E, Azas N. 2003. Ethnobotanical survey and in vitro antiplasmodial activity of plants used in traditional medicine in Burkina Faso. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86, 143–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-8741.02.00381-1

Sharma A, Tiwari S, Deb MK, Marty JL. 2020. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2. SARS-CoV-2: a global pandemic and treatment strategies. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 56, 106054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106054

Silva JR de A, Ramos A de S, Machado M. 2011. A review of anti-malarial plants used in traditional medicine in communities in Portuguese-speaking countries: Brazil, Mozambique, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe and Angola. Memotrias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 106 Suppl 1, 142–158. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0074-02762011000900019

So O, Yn O, Mi E, Mn C. 2014. Evaluation of the In Vitro and In Vivo Antioxidant Potentials of Aframomum melegueta Methanolic Seed Extract. Journal of tropical medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/159343

Summerfield A, Keil GM, Mettenleiter TC. 1997. Antiviral activity of an extract from leaves of the tropical plant Acanthospermum hispidum. Antiviral Research 36, 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-3542.97.00035-1

Tongia A, Tongia SK, Dave M. 2004. Phytochemical determination and extraction of Momordica charantia fruit and its hypoglycemic potentiation of oral hypoglycemic drugs in diabetes mellitus.NIDDM. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 48, 241–244.

Venuprasad MP, Kumar Kandikattu H, Razack S, Khanum F. 2014. Phytochemical analysis of Ocimum gratissimum by LC-ESI–MS/MS and its antioxidant and anxiolytic effects. South African Journal of Botany 92, 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2014.02.010

Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. 2020. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet 395, 470–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736.20.30185-9

WHO. 2020. Coronavirus disease 2019. COVID-19.: Situation Report – 51 .11 March 2020. – World. In: ReliefWeb. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-situation-report-59-19-march-2020. Accessed 28 Apr 2021

WHO. 2021a. WHO Coronavirus. COVID-19. Dashboard. https://covid19.who.int. Accessed 28 Apr 2021.

WHO. 2021b. Coronavirus. Accessed 28 Apr 2021. https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/coronavirus.

WHO. 2021c. COVID-19 Vaccines Advice. Accessed 28 Apr 2021. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/covid-19-vaccines/advice.

Yetein M, Houessou L, Lougbégnon T. 2012. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used for the treatment of malaria in Plateau of Allada, Benin. West Africa. Journal of ethnopharmacology 146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.022

Zerbo P, Millogo-Rasolodimby J, Nacoulma-Ouedraogo OG, Van Damme P. 2007. Contribution à la connaissance des plantes médicinales utilisées dans les soins infantiles en pays San, au Burkina Faso. International Journal of Biology Chemical Science 1(3), 262-274. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v1i3.39704

Zhang D, Wu K, Zhang X. 2020. In silico screening of Chinese herbal medicines with the potential to directly inhibit 2019 novel coronavirus. Journal of Integrative Medicine 18, 152–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joim.2020.02.005

Zizka A, Thiombiano A, Dressler S. 2015. Traditional plant use in Burkina Faso. West Africa.: a national-scale analysis with focus on traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 11(9). https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-11-9

Zothantluanga J, Sailo N, Paul A, Shakya A. 2020. Pharmacognostical characterization and in vitro antioxidant activity of Acacia pennata.L.. Willd. leaves: A Southeast Asian medicinal plant. Science Vision 20, 16–28. https://doi.org/10.33493/scivis.20.01.02