Mangroves under pressure: Local threats and management realities in Malamawi Island, Basilan, Philippines
Paper Details
Mangroves under pressure: Local threats and management realities in Malamawi Island, Basilan, Philippines
Abstract
Mangrove forests are among the most productive coastal ecosystems, yet they remain highly vulnerable to anthropogenic pressures. In the Philippines, these habitats provide essential services ranging from coastal protection and carbon storage to fisheries support. Despite their importance, the extent of mangrove degradation and the factors contributing to it remain poorly documented. This study examined the status, threats, and existing management initiatives of mangrove forests in the three barangays of Malamawi Island, Basilan Province, Philippines. Fieldwork was conducted from July to August 2024 and involved direct observation, a transect-walk survey for coastal threats, photo documentation, and key informant interviews (n=15). Five major threats were recorded, with infrastructure development being the most prominent, followed by household garbage accumulation, mangrove cutting for charcoal and firewood, and the presence of abandoned fishponds. The local government and community had established mangrove nurseries and conducted tree-planting activities, reflecting their awareness of mangroves’ roles in coastal protection, livelihood support, erosion control, and biodiversity conservation. Awareness of permit requirements and anti-illegal-cutting ordinances indicates that these regulations are visible and generally enforced. However, the effectiveness of reforestation and cutting policies remains limited by inadequate manpower and monitoring. Thus, this study provides a baseline that can inform stronger governance and a more integrated, community-centered management to support the long-term sustainability of the mangrove forests in the island. This thrust supports the global sustainable development goals 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and 15 (Life on Land).
Abayon M, An N. 2023. Mangrove conservation and utilization in Tacloban City, Leyte, Philippines. International Journal of Biosciences 23(1), 284–294. https://doi.org/10.12692/ijb/23.1.284-294
Abdullah R, Hanif A, Toufik S, Zakaria R, Kadir W, Husin T, Halim N, Ajeng A. 2021. Community knowledge, attitude, and practice towards importance and sustainability of mangrove forests: a case study of Kuala Langat, Malaysia. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science 5(5), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.47772/ijriss.2021.5511
Agduma A, Cao K. 2023. Species richness, extent and potential threats to mangroves of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Philippines. Biodiversity Data Journal 11, e100050. https://doi.org/10.3897/bdj.11.e100050
Akram H, Hussain S, Mazumdar P, Chua K, Butt T, Harikrishna J. 2023. Mangrove health: a review of functions, threats, and challenges associated with mangrove management practices. Forests 14(9), 1698. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091698
Alimbon J, Manseguiao M. 2021. Community knowledge and utilization of mangroves in Panabo Mangrove Park, Panabo City, Davao del Norte, Philippines. International Journal of Bonorowo Wetlands 11(2). https://doi.org/10.13057/bonorowo/w110201
Alimbon J, Manseguiao M. 2021. Species composition, stand characteristics, aboveground biomass, and carbon stock of mangroves in Panabo Mangrove Park, Philippines. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity 22(6). https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d220615
Bhowmik A, Padmanaban R, Cabral P, Romeiras M. 2022. Global mangrove deforestation and its interacting social-ecological drivers: a systematic review and synthesis. Sustainability 14, 4433. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084433
Bimrah K, Dasgupta R, Hashimoto S, Saizen I, Dhyani S. 2022. Ecosystem services of mangroves: A systematic review and synthesis of contemporary scientific literature. Sustainability 14(19), 12051. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912051
Camacho L, Gevaña D, Carandang A, Camacho S, Combalicer E, Rebugio L, Youn Y. 2011. Tree biomass and carbon stock of a community-managed mangrove forest in Bohol, Philippines. Forest Science and Technology 7(4), 161–167.
Camacho L, Gevaña D, Sabino L, Ruzol C, Garcia J, Camacho A, Oo T, Maung A, Saxena K, Liang L, Yiu E, Takeuchi K. 2020. Sustainable mangrove rehabilitation: lessons and insights from community-based management in the Philippines and Myanmar. APN Science Bulletin 10(1), 18–25. https://doi.org/10.30852/sb.2020.983
Chatterjee U, Chatterjee U. 2025. How are Marang Marang floating cottages in Basilan leading sustainable tourism? earning the ASEAN community-based tourism award for eco-friendly innovation. Travel and Tour World. https://www.travelandtourworld.com/news/article/how-are-marang-marang-floating-cottages-in-basilan-leading-sustainable-tourism-earning-the-asean-community-based-tourism-award-for-eco-friendly-innovation/
Costenbader J (Ed.). 2009. Legal frameworks for REDD: design and implementation at the national level. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, xiv + 200 pp.
Cuenca-Ocay G, Bualan Y, Macusi E. 2023. Philippine mangroves: species composition, characteristics, diversity, and present status. Davao Research Journal 12(2), 6–29. https://doi.org/10.59120/drj.v12i2.113
Das S, Das S, Tah J. 2022. Mangrove forests and people’s livelihoods. In: Mangrove ecosystems and their services. Springer, pp. 153–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0519-3_7
De Lacerda L, Ward R, Godoy M, De Andrade Meireles A, Borges R, Ferreira A. 2021. 20-years cumulative impact from shrimp farming on mangroves of northeast Brazil. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 4, 653096. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2021.653096
Dencer-B AM, Milne S, Perot J. 2018. A review on biodiversity, ecosystem services and perceptions of New Zealand’s mangroves: can we make informed decisions about their removal? Resources 7(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources7010023
Djosetro M, Behagel J. 2024. Including local knowledge in conservation planning: the case of the western coastal protected areas in Suriname. Ecosystems and People 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/26395916.2024.2361683
Ellison J, Koedam N, Wang Y, Primavera J, Jin Eong O, Wan-Hong Yong J, Ngoc Nam V. 2010. Aegiceras floridum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010, e.T178856A7628795. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-2.RLTS.T178856A7628795.en
Feller I, Friess D, Krauss K, Lewi R. 2017. The state of the world’s mangroves in the 21st century under climate change. Hydrobiologia 803(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-017-3331-z
Garcia K, Malabrigo P, Gevaña D. 2013. Philippines’ mangrove ecosystem: status, threats and conservation. In: Mangrove ecosystems of Asia, pp. 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8582-7_5
Gonzalez J, Mazo X, Mangao S. 2022. Beach forest communities of San Agustin, Romblon with notes on coastal threats. Romblon State University Research Journal 4(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.58780/rsurj.v4i1.95
Gouvêa L, Serrão E, Cavanaugh K, Gurgel C, Horta P, Assis J. 2022. Global impacts of projected climate changes on the extent and aboveground biomass of mangrove forests. Diversity and Distributions 28(11), 2349–2360. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13631
Hamza A, Esteves L, Cvitanović M, Kairo J. 2024. Global patterns of mangrove resource utilization: a systematic review. Frontiers in Sustainable Resource Management 3, 1395724. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsrma.2024.1395724
Jadloc J, Legaspina T, Gabrinao W, Gorgonio C. 2025. Drivers that motivate participation in mangrove forest management among the local people at Barangay Lasang, Davao City, Philippines. BIO Web of Conferences 157, 04005. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202515704005
Lillo E, Buot IE Jr. 2016. Species composition of Argao mangrove forest, Cebu, Philippines. Journal of Wetlands Biodiversity 6, 37–45. https://www.muzeulbrailei.ro/images/naturale/Volum%206/04JWB201663745.pdf
Lillo E, Malaki A, Alcazar S, Rosales R, Redoblado B, Diaz J, Pantinople E, Nuevo R. 2022. Composition and diversity of mangrove species in Camotes Island, Cebu, Philippines. Journal of Marine and Island Cultures 11(1). https://doi.org/10.21463/jmic.2022.11.1.11
Lovelock C, Barbier E, Duarte C. 2022. Tackling the mangrove restoration challenge. PLoS Biology 20(10), e3001836. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001836
Ma W, Wang W, Tang C, Chen G, Wang M. 2020. Zonation of mangrove flora and fauna in a subtropical estuarine wetland based on surface elevation. Ecology and Evolution 10(14), 7404–7418. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6467
Mendoza M. 2017. Mangrove forests in the Philippines. The Maritime Review. https://maritimereview.ph/mangrove-forests-in-the-philippines/
Pototan B, Capin N, Delim A, Novero A. 2020. Assessment of mangrove species diversity in Banaybanay, Davao Oriental, Philippines. Biodiversitas 22(1). https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d220120
Primavera JH, Esteban JMA. 2008. A review of mangrove rehabilitation in the Philippines: successes, failures and future prospects. Wetlands Ecology and Management 16(3), 173–253.
Primavera JH, Sadaba MJHL, Lebata JL, Altamirano JR. 2004. Handbook of mangroves in the Philippines: Panay. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines, 106 pp.
Pulhin J, Gevaña D, Pulhin F. 2017. Community-based mangrove management in the Philippines: experience and challenges in the context of changing climate. In: Disaster risk reduction, pp. 247–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56481-2_16
Rahmadi M, Yuniastuti E, Suciani A, Harefa M, Persada A, Tuhono E. 2023. Threats to mangrove ecosystems and their impact on coastal biodiversity: a study on mangrove management in Langsa City. Indonesian Journal of Earth Sciences 3(2), A627. https://doi.org/10.52562/injoes.2023.627
Reciproco A, Suarez J, Padilla J, Flora J, Cañada M, Velasco C, Buhong N. 2023. Awareness and participation in mangrove management of coastal communities in Baler, Aurora, Philippines. Ecology, Environment and Conservation 29(2), 928–934. https://doi.org/10.53550/eec.2023.v29i02.064
Rosario G, Peña R, Guzman R, Abalos R. 2021. Species composition and diversity of mangroves in the riverbanks of Barangay Basin, Binmaley, Pangasinan. Journal of Natural and Allied Sciences 5(1), 55–59.
Sahidjan N, Gerasmio I, Tatil W. 2025. Density and species composition: an initial record of the marine macroinvertebrates in Malamawi Island, Isabela City, Basilan Province, Philippines. AACL Bioflux 18(3). http://www.bioflux.com.ro/aacl
Sofue Y, Quevedo J, Lukman K, Kohsaka R. 2025. Identifying changes in mangrove landscapes in the Philippines and Indonesia using remote sensing and community perceptions: towards ecosystem services management. Regional Studies in Marine Science, 104023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2025.104023
Taillardat P, Friess D, Lupascu M. 2018. Mangrove blue carbon strategies for climate change mitigation are most effective at the national scale. Biology Letters 14(10), 20180251. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0251
Villareal M. 2025. These floating cottages in Basilan garner prestigious ASEAN community-based tourism award. GMA Network. https://www.gmanetwork.com/lifestyle/travel/119478/these-floating-cottages-in-basilan-garner-prestigious-asean-community-based-tourism-award/story
Norvie Semine*, Jill Ruby Parmisana, Ashikeen Tampipi, Chris Rey Lituanas, Wella Tatil, 2026. Mangroves under pressure: Local threats and management realities in Malamawi Island, Basilan, Philippines. J. Biodiv. Environ. Sci., 28(1), 56-67.
Copyright © 2026 by the Authors. This article is an open access article and distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) license.