Emerging issues and challenges associated with conservation of the African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in the semi-arid areas of Tanzania

Abbiw DK. 1990. Useful plants of Ghana. London: Intermediate Technology Publications & the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Adam YO, Eisa MA, Ahmed DM. 2012. Role of Adansonia digitata L. fruits in development and forest conservation in Rashad locality, Nuba Mountains, Sudan. Journal of Agricultural Science 20, pp. 314-328.

Adesanya SA, Idowu TB, Elujoba AA. 1988. Antisickling activity of Adansonia digitata. Planta Medica 54(4), p. 374.

Akinnifesi FK, Ajayi OC, Sileshi G, Kadzere I, Akinnifesi AI. 2007. Domesticating and commercializing indigenous fruit and nut tree crops for food security and income generation in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Agroforestry Centre 39 pp.

Aluko AJ, Kinyuru LM, Chove LM, Kahenya P, Owino W, 2016. Nutritional Quality and Functional Properties of Baobab (Adansonia digitata) Pulp from Tanzania. Journal of Food Research 5(5), pp. 23-31.

Amissah L, Mohren GMJ, Kyereh B, Poorter L, 2015. The Effects of Drought and Shade on the Performance, Morphology and Physiology of Ghanaian Tree Species. PLoS ONE 10(4), e0121004.

Araújo MB, Thuiller W, Pearson RG. 2006. Climate warming and the decline of amphibians and reptiles in Europe. Journal of biogeography 33(10), pp. 1712-1728.

Baillon HE.1876. Adansonia madagascariensis. Adansonia 11, 251pp.

Barnes RFW, Barnes KL, Kapela EB. 1994. The long-term impact of elephant browsing on baobab trees at Msembe, Ruaha National Park, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 32, pp. 177-184.

Barnes RFW. 1980. The decline of the baobab tree in Ruaha National Park, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 18, pp. 243-252.

Biru Y, Bekele A. 2012. Food habits of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Babile Elephant Sanctuary, Ethiopia. Tropical Ecology 53(1), pp. 43-52.

Boko M, Niang I, Nyong A, Vogel C, Giteko A, Medany M, Osman-Elasha B, Tabo R, Yanda P. 2007. Africa Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Forth assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Ed Parry ML et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp. 433-67.

Bomhard B, Richardson DM, Donaldson JS, Hughe SGO, Midgley GF, Raimondo DC,Thuiller W. 2005. Potential impacts of future land use and climate change on the Red List status of the Proteaceae in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Global Change Biology 11(9), pp. 1452-1468.

Bond WJ, Keeley JE. 2005. Fire as a global ‘herbivore’: the ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems. Trends in ecology and evolution 20(7), pp. 387-394.

Bond WJ, Woodward FI, Midgley, GF. 2005. The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytologist 165(2), pp. 525-538.

Bosch CH, Sié K, Asafa BA. 2004.  Adansonia digitata L. Record from Protabase. Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, O.A. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa/Ressourcesvégétales de l’Afriquetropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands.

Boundja RP, Midgley JJ. 2010. Patterns of elephant impact on woody plants in the Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park, Kwazulu Natal, South Africa. African Journal of Ecology 48(1), pp. 206-214.

Brendler T, Gruenwald J, Jaenicke C. 2003. Herbal remedies. Stuttgart: Medpharm GmbH Scientific Publishers.

Buchmann C, Prehsler S, Hartl A, Vogl CR. 2010. The importance of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in rural West African subsistence-suggestion of a cautionary approach to international market export of baobab fruits. Ecology of Food Nutrition 49, pp. 145-172.

Carment R, Parry L, Blackburn A, Vermeylen S, Barlow J. 2011. Understanding human-fire interactions in tropical forest regions: a case for interdisciplinary research across the natural and social sciences. Ecology and Society 16(1), pp. 53.

Cuni Sanchez A, Haq N, Assogbadjo. 2010. Variation in baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) leaf morphology in relation to drought tolerance. Genetic Resources Crop Evolution 57, pp. 17-25.

De Caluwé E, Halamová K, Van Damme P. 2010. Adansonia digitata L. a review of traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Afrika Focus 23, pp. 11-51.

De Caluwé E. 2011. Market chain analysis of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) and tamarind (Tamarin dusindica L.) products in Mali and Benin. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.

Doughty CE, Goulden ML. 2008. Seasonal patterns of tropical forest leaf area index and CO₂ exchange. Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences 113, pp. G00B06.

Duarte E, Rondán BG, Rubenich R, Rocha P. 2018. Vegetative Propagation Method for Ex Situ Conservation of Sidara moniana (Malvaceae): an Endemic Species with Medicinal Potential in Danger of Extinction. International Journal of Agriculture Biology 20, pp. 2779-2784.

Duvall CS, 2007. Human settlement and baobab distribution in south-western Mali. Journal of Biogeograph 34, 1947-1961.

Edkins MT, Kruger LM, Harris K, Midgley JJ. 2008. Baobabs and elephants in Kruger National Park: nowhere to hide. African Journal of Ecology  46, pp. 119-125.

FDA. 2009. Agency response letter GRAS notice no. GRN000273, 25/July/2009. US Food and Drug Administration.http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/NoticeInventory/ucm174945].

Gandiwa E, Magwati T, Zisadza P, Chinuwo T, Tafangenyasha C. 2011. The impact of African elephants on Acacia tortilis woodland in northern Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Journal of Arid Environments 75, pp. 809-814.

Gebauer J, El-Siddig K, Ebert G. 2002. Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.): A review on a multipurpose tree with promising future in the Sudan. Gartenbauwissenschaft 67(4), pp. 155-160.

Gebauer J, Luedeling E. 2013. A note on baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in Kordofan, Sudan. Genetic Resource Crop Evolution 60, pp. 1587-1596.

Gruenwald J, Galizia M. 2005. Market brief in the European Union for selected natural ingredients derived from native species. Adansonia digitata L, Baobab. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, UN.

Guy PR. 1982. Baobabs and elephants. African Journal of Ecology 20, pp. 215-220.

Hammond E. 2000. Biodiversity for Sale – Dismantling the Hype about Benefit Sharing. GRAIN and The Gaia Foundation, Barcelona & UK.

Hampe A, Petit RJ. 2005. Conserving biodiversity under climate change: the rear edge matters. Ecology letters 8(5), pp. 461-467.

Hayward MW, Zawadzka B. 2010. Increasing elephant (Loxodonta Africana) density is a more important driver of change in vegetation condition than rainfall. Acta Theriologica 55(4), pp. 289-298.

Heuzé V,  Tran G, Archimède H, Bastianelli D. 2016. African baobab (Adansonia digitata).Available at https://www.feedipedia.org/node/525.Data accessed on September 12, 2019.

Hulme MR, Doherty T, Ngara W, New M, Lister D. 2001. African climate change: 1900-2100. Climate Research 17, pp. 145-68.

IFAD. 2011. Enabling poor rural people to overcome poverty in Kenya. International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome, Italy.

International Centre for Underutilized Crops (ICUC). 2002. Fruits for the future baobab (Fact Sheet No. 4). Retrieved 12 September 2018 from http://www/icuc-iwmi.org/Publications/ Centre for Underutilized Crops, ICUC (2006). Technical manual for small-scale processor.

International Centre for Underutilized Crops (ICUC). 2006. Technique manual for small scales processer. International Center for Underutilized Crop (ICUC) Southampton, UK, 94pp.

IPCC, Cambioclimático. 2014. Impactos, adaptacióny vulnerabilidad-Resum enoarare sponsables de políticas. Contrib. delGrup. Trab. II al Quinto Inf. Evaluación del Grup. Intergub. Expert. sobre el Cambio Climático; Geneva; 2014. pp. 34.

IPCC. 2007: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104 pp.

Jaiswal RK, Mukherjee S, Raju K, Saxena R. 2002. Forest fire risk zone mapping from satellite imagery and GIS. International Journal of Applied Observation. Geoinformation 4, pp. 1-10.

Jamnadass RH, Dawson IK, Franzel Z, Leakey RRB, Mithöfer D, Akinnifesi FK, Tchoundjeu Z. 2011. Improving livelihoods and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa through the promotion of indigenous and exotic fruit production in smallholders’ agroforestry systems. A review. Introduction Forestry Revision 13, pp. 1-17.

Kaboré D, Lingani HS, Diawara B, Compaoré CS, Dicko MH, Jakobsen M. 2011. A review of baobab (Adansonia digitata) products: Effect of processing techniques, medicinal properties and uses. African Journal of Food Science 5(16), pp. 833-844.

Kamatou GPP, Vermaak I, Viljoen AM. 2011. An updated review of Adansonia digitata: a commercially important African tree. South African Journal of Botany 77, pp. 908-919.

Kupika OL, Kativu S, Gandiwa E, Gumbie A. 2014. Impact of African elephants on baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) population structure in northern Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Tropical Ecology 55(2), pp. 159-166.

Lewis SC, King AD. 2017. Evolution of mean, variance and extremes in 21st century temperatures. Weather and Climate Extremes 15, pp. 1-10.

Lisao K, Geldenhuys CJ, Chirwa PW. 2018. Assessment of the African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) populations in Namibia: Implications for conservation. Global Ecology and Conservation 14, pp. e00386.

Mapaure IN, Campbell BM. 2002. Changes in miombo woodland cover in and around Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, in relation to elephants and fire. African Journal of Ecology    40(3), pp. 212-219.

MEA. 2005. Millenium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and Human wellbeing: Biodiversitysynthesis. World Resource Institute, Washington, D.C.

Milza P. 2002. Unapianta per ilfuturo: Il Baobab. Erboristeriadomaini 10, pp. 40-51.

Mpofu EE, Gandiwa E, Zisadza-Gandiwa P, Zinhiva H. 2012. Abundance, distribution and status of African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in dry savanna woodlands in southern Gonarezhou National Park, southeast Zimbabwe. Tropical Ecology 53, pp. 119-124.

Msalilwa U, Augustino S, Gillah PR. 2013. Community perception on climate change and usage patterns of non-timber forest products by communities around Kilolo District, Tanzania. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management 6(5), pp. 507-516.

Msalilwa UL, Munishi LK, Makule EE, Ndakidemi PA. 2019. Pinpointing baobab (Adansonia digitata [Linn. 1759]) population hotspots in the semi‐arid areas of Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology.00:1–13. https ://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12709

Munyebvu F. 2015. Abundance, structure and uses of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) populations in Omusati Region, Namibia. PhD thesis, Faculty of biodiversity management and research, University of Namibia 152 pp.

Nordeide MB, Hatloy A, Folling M, Lied E, Oshaug A. 1996. Nutrient composition and nutritional importance of green leaves and wild food resources in an agricultural district, Koutiala, in southern Mali. Introduction of food science nutrition 47, pp. 455-478.

North R, Darr D, Gebauer J, Mithöfer D, Owino WO, Rimberia FK, Kehlenbeck K, Siddig ME, Mahmoud TE, Taha ME, Triebel A, Johnson H, Maina A, Ahmed MF, Adam YO, ChimulekeM, Elwasila EM, Habte T, Krawinkel MB, Mbugua NJ, Muendo KM, Sanjak E, Schüring M. 2014. Promoting the Use of Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in Rural Communities in Eastern Africa. Conference on International Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural Development organized by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague pp. 1-4.

O’Connor TG, Goodman PS, Clegg B. 2007. A functional hypothesis of the threat of local extirpation of woody plant species by elephant in Africa. Biological Conservation 136(3), pp. 329-345.

Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S. 2009. Agroforestry Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. World Agroforestry Centre, Kenya.

Owen-smith RN. 1988. Megaherbivores. The influence of a very large body size on ecology. Cambridge University Press.

Parkouda CH, Sanou A, Tougiani A, Korbo D, Nielsen K, Tano-Debrah A, Ræbild B, Diawara B, Jensen J. 2012. Variability of baobab (Adansonia Digitata L.) fruits’ physical characteristics and nutrient content in the West African Sahel. Agroforestry Systems 85, pp. 455-463.

Patrut A, Von-Reden KF, Lowy DA, Alberts AH, Pohlman JW, Wittmann R, Mitchell CS. 2007. Radiocarbon dating of a very large African baobab. Tree Physiology 27(11), pp. 1569-1574.

Rashford J. 2015. The Uses of the Baobab Flower (Adansonia digitata L). Ethnobotany Research & Applications 14, pp. 211-229.

Ribeiro NS, Snook LK, Nunes de CarvalhoVaz I, Alves T. 2019. Gathering honey from wild and traditional hives in the Miombo woodlands of the Niassa National Reserve, Mozambique: What are the impacts on tree populations. Global Ecology and Conservation 17, pp. e00552.

Ruddiman WF. 2003. The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Era Began Thousands of Years Ago. Climatic Change 61, pp. 261-293.

Sacande M, Rønne C, Sanon M, Jøker D. 2006. Adansonia digitata L. In: Seed leaflet, vol 109. Forest and Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg.

Sala OE, Chapin FS, Armesto JJ, Berlow E, Bloomfield J, Dirzo R, Leemans R. 2002. Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100.Science 287(5459), pp. 1770-1774.

Sanchez AC, Osborne PE, Haq N. 2010.Identifying the global potential for baobab tree cultivation using ecological niche modelling. Agroforestry systems 80(2), pp. 191-201.

Sanchez AC, Osborne PE, Haq N. 2011. Climate change and the African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.): the need for better conservation strategies. African Journal of Ecology 49, pp. 234-245.

Sankaran M, Ratnam J, Hanan N. 2008. Woody cover in African savannas: the role of resources, fire and herbivory. Global Ecology and Biogeography 17(2), pp. 236-245.

Schumann KW, Wittig R, Thiombiano A, Becker U, Hahn K. 2010. Impact of land-use type and bark- and leaf-harvesting on population structure and fruit production of the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) in a semi-arid savanna, West Africa Forest Ecology and Management 260, pp. 2035-2044.

Schumann KW, Wittig R, Thiombiano A, Becker U, Hahn K. 2012. Uses, management and population status of the baobab in eastern Burkina Faso. Agroforestry Systems 85, pp. 263-278.

Shannon G, Druce DJ, Page BR, Eckhardt HC, Grant R Slotow R. 2008. The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park. Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, pp. 281-289.

Sidibé M, Williams JT. 2002. Baobab – Adansonia digitata. Fruits for the future.Int. Centre Underutil. Crops, Southampton, UK. 96 Pp.

Stadlmayr B, Charrondiere UR, Eisenwagen S, Jamnadass R, Kehlenbeck K. 2013. Nutrient composition of selected indigenous fruits from sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 93(11), pp. 2627-2636.

Strohbach M. 1999. The Sustainably Harvested Devil’s Claw Project – Ecological Survey February 1999. CRIAA SA-DC, Windhoek.

Swanepoel CM, Swanepoel SM. 1986. Baobab damage by elephant in the middle Zambezi valley, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 24, pp. 129-13.

Swanepoel CM. 1993. Baobab damage in Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe. Africa Journal of Ecology 31, pp. 220- 225.

Tafangenyasha C. 1997. Tree Loss in Gonarezhou National Park (Zimbabwe) between 1970 and 1983. Journal of Environmental Management b, pp. 355-366.

Tapsoba H, Deschamps JP. 2006. Use of medicinal plants for the treatment of oral diseases in Burkina Faso. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104(1), pp. 68-78.

Thornton PK, Ericksen PJ, Herrero M. Challinor AJ. 2014. Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review. Global Change Biology 20(11), pp. 3313-3328.

Toledo M, Peñaclaros M, Bongers F, Alarcón A, Balcázar J, Chuviña J, Leaño C, Licona JC, Poorter L. 2012. Distribution patterns of tropical woody species in response to climatic and edaphic gradients. Journal of Ecology 100, pp. 253-263.

Vasseur DA, DeLong JP, Gilbert B, Greig HS, Harley CDG, McCann KS, Savage V, Tunney TD, O’Connor MI. 2014. Increased temperature variation poses a greater risk to species than climate warming. Proc. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. 281 (1779).

Venter S, Witkowski E. 2010. Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit production in communal and conservation land-use types in Southern Africa. Forestry Ecology and Management 261, pp. 630-639.

Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG. 1962.The medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and Eastern Africa. Second ed. Edinburgh and London: E. and S. Livingstone Ltd.

Weyerhaeuser FJ. 1985. Survey of elephant damage to baobabs in Tanzania’s Lake Manyara National Park. African Journal of Ecology 23(4), pp. 235-243.

Wickens G E. 1982. The baobab: Africa’s upside-down tree. Kew Bull 37, pp. 173-209.

Wickens GE, Lowe P. 2008. The baobabs: pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia. Springer, UK.

Wilson RT. 1998. Vital statistics of the baobab (Adansonia digitata). African Journal of Ecology      26, pp. 197-206.

Wilson WRS. 2002. Status report on the postharvest handling, processing and marketing of underutilized fruit crops in Sri Lanka. In: Haq, N, Hughes, A. (Eds.), Fruits for the Future in Asia: Proceedings of the Consultation Meeting on the Processing and Marketing of Underutilised Tropical Fruits in Asia. International Centre for Underutilized Crops (ICUC), Southampton, UK. pp. 199-204.

Zhang P, He L, Fan X, Huo P, Liu Y, Zhang T, Pan Y, Yu Z. 2015. Ecosystem service value assessment and contribution factor analysis of land use change in Miyun County, China. Sustainability 7, pp. 7333-7356.